helping students organize
Introduction
The training manual focuses on the use of Instructional Strategies by instructional designers to determine which strategy they use to design their material in order to achieve the target learning objectivities. The main aim is to propose strategies in which the learning objectives of the instructional designers can be met where they fully understand and relate to what they are being taught.
The training manual will take about Five strategies which instructional designer get benefit of them in designing their instructional strategy. Each strategy will included Five elements to take about. Instructional designers will recognize the advantages of each strategy. Also, they will know when and which strategy they should use. There are five analyzed instructional strategies and the various theoretical models supporting them.
The following are the various instructional strategies that are recommended for use
1. Chunking
2. Compare and contrast
3. Signaling
4. Explaining Example
5. Graphic Organizers
The training manual is design for instructional designer to be able to select the appropriate strategy that serves them in their designing their material. Also, it serves them how to select the strategy and how they could use it. Training manual provide explanation for each strategy and what its objectives are , when they could use it and how they will be assessed . In addition, it help designer how to organize the information in enhance students’ ability to gain the lesson effectively. In addition, it provides the instructional designers with research on the topic’s effectiveness.
Each of these strategies is analyzed and assessed on target achievement under the following the listed basis.
· What it is
· When to select and use it
· Why it should be selected
· How it is best utilized
· Where it should be used
· Related Research and references
The Objective of Training Manual
The main objectives to be achieved by discussing the instructional strategies to instructional designers are as outlined below:
The instructional designer will be able to
· identify the concept of each instructional strategy in each different scenario and setting.
· Give in-depth description on each and every mentioned strategy.
· Give a detailed explanation as to why each of the strategy should be used
· utilize the discussed aspects of each strategy to create their own instructional strategy.
Table of Contents Introduction 2 The Objective of Training Manual 4 Chapter one: Chunking 7 Introduction 7 Objectives of chunking 7 What Chunking is 7 When to select and use it 8 Why it should be selected 9 How it is best utilized 11 Assessment 12 Related research and references 13 Conclusion 13 Chapter two: Compare and Contrast 14 Objectives of Compare and Contrast 14 What is Compare and contrast 14 When to select and use it 16 Effective Why it should be selected 16 How it is best utilized 17 Assessment 18 Related research and references 19 Chapter Three: Signaling 21 What signaling is 21 Objectives 21 When to select and use it 21 Why it should be selected 22 How it is best utilized, 23 Assessment 23 Related research and references 23 Chapter Four: Explaining Example 24 Objectives of chunking 24 What is Explaining example 24 When to select and use it 25 Why it should be selected 25 How it is best utilized, 27 Assessment 27 Related research and references 28 Chapter Five: Graphic Organizer 29 Introduction 29 Objectives 29 What Graphic organizer is 29 When to select and use it 30 Figer.4, Energy by Marcia 36 Assessment 38 Related research and references 38 Reference 40
Chapter one: Chunking
Introduction
Arrange of material has effect on design the lesson. If the material was not organize and arranges it will be difficult to understand the concept clearly. Also, it is difficult to read a lot of information which is related and unrelated in one paragraph without. However, chunking can help to arrange and organize the material in smoothly way.
Objectives of chunking
The instructional designers will be able to
· define the concept of chunking
· recognize when to select chunking
· explain why they are utilizing chunking
· Identify how to use chunking
· Recognize where it should be used
· Design material by suing chunking strategy
What Chunking is
The word of chunking means divide something into several logical part. Thus, chunking strategy is breaking down the information into small groups or units. Pappas (2013) said that, “Chunking refers to the strategy of making a more efficient use of our short-term memory by organizing and grouping various pieces of information together.” For example, dividing the content into several paragraphs arranged logically . Chunking enables and makes information to be registered in short-term memory then transfer it to long-term memory . This strategy is based on cognitive theory. The Peak Performance Center (2010-2013) claims that “chunking is strategy used to reduce the cognitive load as the learner process information.”
Chunking strategy simplifies the abstract and complex information and material into simple one. This Strategy helps instructional designers to analyze information in order to be understood and thereby relieves the burden of the amount of information stored in the mind. It break the abstract and complex information into basic form. Which means produce the simple information to complex one. providing information with basic form help to recognize the abstract information, and it will be easier to be retrieved in the future.
Also, chunking divides the content into smooth and relative part. For instance, dividing the content into several paragraphs where each paragraph has a relative to the previous one. Pappas (2013) indicates that “The content should have a rational flow, starting from basic and broad concepts and then progressively advance into more complex ideas. Each concept should contain the right amount of information.”
Chunking strategy helps in dividing the items based on its category. It group the item which are similar together to be easier to store and recall later. For example, a lesson about fruit and vegetables. There is a large quantity and variety of fruits and vegetables such as, Apple, Okra, Tomato, Banana, Potato, etc. Chunking helps in listed each item under its category. For instance, place Banana, Apple under fruit section. The other under vegetable section.
When to select and use it
Chunking strategy is used when the lesson carries a lot of information and that may affect students’ cognitive loads. It is a useful strategy to break down the lesson that carry out a large amount of information in order to avoid the boredom. Also, it is would be selected in grouping information into small units. In addition, it good use in grouping or listing the items under the main points to be easy to remember. Recording to Willis (2014)
Information taught in patterns can be as simple as presenting material in chunked format. Because the working memory has a capacity for immediate recall limited to from five to nine pieces of unrelated items, if information is separated into chunks, students can remember it more successfully. Just as phone numbers and social security numbers are divided into chunks of three or four, information—from biologic genus-species names to states and capitals—can be chunked into groupings of three or four, ideally with some commonality that relates them.
In a history class, for example, the lesson contains several events happened in different dates. To facilitating remember what events that happened in each date. Chunking is the best use in this case and that through listing or grouping the events that happened in certain period under its year and so on . That will be easier to recall all the information that happened in certain period. Also, if there is a long content that carries a large amount of information, we use chunking strategy to divide or group the content that has associated together in one group or paragraph and so on. It used on category the items to its group that belong to
Why it should be selected
As we know our short-term memory is limited and does not retain l a large amount of information. Therefore, we need a strategy that helps to process information to be stored in the long-term memory. Some lessons carry large amount of information which are essential to be understood by the students, and the instructional designer needs an effective technique to design this amount of information to be delivers to students. “To help students process information that is essential to understanding specific content” chunking is a good strategy to deliver a large amount of information to them (Marzano, 2009).
Chunking strategy helps instructional designers to group the information based on what they understood. For example, according to Professional Learning Board (2014), instructional designers “can categorize information based on events, dates, influencing factors, etc.”
Chunking strategy helps to produce the abstract and complex information and material. Designer could produce the complex information by producing the simple information until reach to the complex information. That means break information down into its basic information in order to understand the concept of abstract and complex information. by this way the designer will achieve the smooth movement from one paragraph to another one by going gradually to a complex information to be easy for learners to absorb it. Dividing the complex information into its basic form, will facilitate recognizing the complex information easily.
The advantage of this strategy is helping the instructional designers to organize and divide a large information into small units in order to be easy to be absorbed; to give confidence and comfort to the learners in receiving the information; to help learners to recall numbers, list and letters; to transition information from easy to difficult; and facilitate learning for learners; and facilitate understanding of information. This strategy is used to relieve the burden of the amount of information for the brain and help to recall the information in easy way. For instance, the date of our birthday is chunked by grouping the numbers such as 12-03-2009 instead of 12032009. We can easily remember the date because we chunk the year as a group as well as month and day. Pappas (2013) said that,
When information is chunked into groups, the brain can process them easier and faster, because our working memory can hold a limited amount of data at the same time. So, chunking is useful when we try to memorize something complex, such as a 14digit number for example, or large pieces of information, like a course’s content, since the smaller pieces are easier to retain and recall.
Thus, The chunking of information will be easier for learners to store and maintain information for a long time because Individuals’ ability to save information in their minds is very limited. Due to that, this strategy helps designers to design the material in the way that assists the learners to retrieve information quickly and better in the future.
How it is best utilized
The perfect way to utilize chunking strategy is by dividing a large amount of information into small groups where the small groups are formed with information that have relations with each other. instructional designer before starting design the lesson, they should ask themselves a questions such as, what is the impotent of a lesson? What are its advantages or disadvantages? What is should be presented in the lesson? What is the sequence of the lesson and information should be? What is the information that it could be possible known by the learners? Per to Pappas (2013) chunking should go through “three major processes” which are “[classifying] the content based on what’s really important to learn, and then [grouping] and [organizing] the information. Also, tray to exclude the information that is not needed or does not relative in order to avoid the flood of students’ working memory. Here is an example about Chunking the lesson. We need to divide the lesson into several parts to be easy to reduce the cognitive load, to understand and retrieve it later. For instance, a lesson about technology. First, write the topic of the lesson such as, technology in our life. Second, write an introduction about the lesson. Third write a definition of the technology about the topic. Fourth, the advantage of technology. Fifth, the disadvantage of technology. Sixth, the role that technology plays in our life,…etc. Another example as like previous example, is in a history class to make students remember the events that occurred in a century, by listing all the events that took place in one year together. These events that happened in one year could be chunk into dramatic events and pleasant events. Also, it is utilized in Biology class by listing the causes of a disease in a category and how to prevent it in other category. Thus, it will be easy for students to remember the information easily because the information is being chunked. The third example is poetry. The best way to make students recall the poetry which consists of five stanza is by memorizing the first stanza then go to another stanza and combing with the previous one then go to the third, fourth and fifth and do the same with first and second stanza.
Assessment
1- Throughout reading this chapter answer the following questions:
· what is your own definition about Chunking Strategy?
· When chunking strategy should be selected? Why?
2- True or false
a) chunking is considered a good strategy to arrange the content ( )
b) chunking is used for a short content in order to be easy recall information later ( )
3- Select any topic you are interested in and try to analysis it by grouping the information that is relative together and exclude the one that is irrelevant and meaningless
4- Looking for a whole large paragraph through the internet about technology and try to apply the chunking strategy on this paragraph. Take into account the smoothly move from one paragraph to another paragraph.
5- “Technology” is the selected topic for you; you are required to apply the chunking strategy to design this lesson.
Related research and references
According to The Peak Performance Center (2010-2013) about their view of chunking which “Refer[s] to an approach for making more efficient use of short-term memory by grouping information. Chunking breaks up long strings of information into unites or chunk.” Christopher Pappas (2013) in his web article that published on Monday, 03 June 2013, gave a good example about how to use chunking and what its definition and how we can exclude the meaningless information.
Conclusion
Chunking strategy is very useful for the instructional designers in term of allowing them to create their material by displaying the information in simple and easy way, organizing and arranging the content to be easy to understood, reducing the cognitive load, simplifying gain a large amount of knowledge and constructing the lesson smoothly.
Chapter two: Compare and Contrast
Introduction
Sometimes, there is two topics or more which carry information that has similarities or differences between each other. these similarities and differences between tow topic or more cause confused for both designers in designing their material and for students to clear up the confusing to understand what is the distinguish between tow topic. For that, compare and contrast strategy come to facilitate to the designers to organize the material in way that reduce the burden of the amount of information and highlight the important points in each topic and get rid of meaningless information.
Objectives of Compare and Contrast
The instructional designers will be able to
· Define the concept of compare
· Define the concept of contrast
· Recognize when to select compare and contrast strategy
· Explain why they are utilizing compare and contrast strategy
· Identify how to use compare and contrast strategy
· Recognize where it should be used
· Design material by suing compare and contrast strategy
What is Compare and contrast
This strategy is used to highlight and analyze the similarities and differences between two or more things and ideas (Steinbronn & Merideth 2008). Compare is showing the items which the two topics have similarity in. That eases to observe the features or characteristics of two topics and save the time to explaining the features of two items. According to Silver(2014) “Comparative thinking is one of our first and most natural forms of thought.” At the same time, the contrast highlight the differences between two ignoring the similarities. For example, listing two activities like football and basketball would be an example of compare and contrast. The designers will design the lesson by showing the differences in how they are play, number of players and the ground rules, and the similarities in the skills that players should they have. However, before that it is “useful for looking a two quantities and determining in what ways they are similar and in what ways they are different” (Jones, 2012). Highlighting the differences and similarities is also considered a good strategy when comparing the ideas of the previous lesson with a new lesson’s ideas.
Compare and contrast strategy serves to relate the two types of information together to be easy to absorb and retain. It helps the designers distinguish the various types of ideas or a group of ideas in designing the lesson. It is “used…to teach vocabulary signals, classification, nomenclature and key characteristics”(Instructional strategy Online, 2014). There are more than one type for compare and contrast strategy. The written work in this type of instructional strategy can either be in plain text or in form of charts (used together with graphical organizers) (Instructional strategy Online, 2014). Also, it could be in form of tables and columns may be drawn to put the similarities on one side and the differences or contrasts on the other side. It serves to have learners relate the information together to be easy to absorb and retain.
It considers direct and indirect instructional methods. This theory is based on the cognitive learning theory where when the information are presents, it mentally recognize by noticing the differences and similarities. The mental recognition helps to note the differences and similarities between things.
This strategy distinguishes between facts, concepts and ideas. Clarification of thinking along a given line and identifying language cues in. it helps to receive new information, enhance memory to remember the main information, and develop thinking.
In order to design the material, “it is important to first understand your own attitude toward comparisons and how you use them in your” creating you lesson (Silver, 2014).
When to select and use it
Does confusion in meaning exist in information? this Instructional strategy is used when there is a confuse in ideas, topic’s ideas or word meaning. If there is a lesson that contains two concepts, compare and contrast considered a solution to deliver these concept in effective way. It used in demonstrating and highlighting similarities and differences between two things or more, also in linking previous knowledge to a new knowledge. For example, in the Geography class the previous lesson was about Indianapolis and the new lesson was about Terre Haute. The previous knowledge it could be both of them in Indiana State. The similarities are both have the same time, weather as well as the same tax. The differences it could be about the university, Agricultural crops, tourist areas, the number of airports, etc. It is use if the content includes more relevant and opposite information that could cause confusion. We can use this strategy in teaching the synonym and opposite word.
Effective Why it should be selected
This strategy helps the designer to produce the material in effective and efficient way because it highlights significant information between two or more concepts. It demonstrate the relationship between elements and to what extent the similarities and differences are between them. It reduce the load cognitive in gaining the two concepts with their characteristics, it helps to arrange the information in logical pattern in order to be understood, limit the confusion between relative concepts, think flexibly, Implement previous knowledge to a new situation, and develop the ideas.
learners are not clear with internal ideas that can help them note down the distinctions (Driscoll, 2005). Therefore, it should be selected when there is the need to enable the designers to point out significant information, outlining the relationships between the previous and current work. It is effective in situations where the lesson required to indulge the students into abstract thinking and reasoning. Also, it useful to stretch the thinking with flexibility and look for new ideas and concepts and how they relate to each other.
How it is best utilized
The most common methods of utilization are through use of tables, columns and charts. After reading, listening or/and viewing, the learners can highlight the main ideas between two concepts or more. They figure out the differences and similarities between the various concepts. The differences and similarities will be separate where each section to the two different sides of the chart or table. It would be better for using this strategy with the topics that have the relationship together was in similarity or in contrast. That because to be easy to understand the lesson by its differences and similarities. It could illustrate the differences and similarities of concepts within table, graphic or chart. For example, design the lesson about two kinds of fruit. First, the designers should recognize the concept of both kind of these fruit. Second, gathering all information about two kind of fruit. Third, draw table or chart or any type of compare and contrast strategy. Fourth, place the similarities in one place and the differences between them in different two places. (See Figure1).
Figure.1 Comparison-Contrast Charts, by Jones.
In addition we can use compare and contrast strategy in mathematics class. For instance, teaching the addition and subtraction problems. First, define the concept of addition and subtraction. What is mean by addition and give example about as well as subtraction.
Assessment
1- Throughout reading this chapter answer the following questions:
· what is your own definition about Compare and Contrast Strategy?
· When Compare and Contrast Strategy should be selected?
· Why instructional designers lean to use compare and contrast strategy?
· What are the forms of Compare and Contrast Strategy?
· To which extent this strategy helps in arranging and absorbing the information between concepts?
· In any points British writing differ that American writing?
· In any points British writing similar to American writing?
2- True or false
c) Compare and Contrast is considered a good strategy to arrange the content ( )
d) Compare and Contrast is used for just a large content in order to be easy recall information later ( )
3- Apply the Compare and Contrast strategy in these topics “ smart phone” and “laptop.” You can choose any type or form of Compare and Contrast strategy when you analyze these topics.
Related research and references
“Compare and Contrast is used to help students distinguish between types of ideas or group like ideas….clarify thinking and define ideas” state by Saskatoon Public Schools, (2014).
A reference can be made to Saskatoon Public Schools 2014 (Darabi & Jin 2013) report which gives compare and contrast as one of the greatest method of helping students distinguish between various ideas or a group of like ideas. It is stated to clarify the thinking and defining of ideas to the students. It is a good source to use when supporting the theory of comparative teaching as improving students reasoning.
Another research has found out that strategies that engage students in comparative thinking have a great effect on them. This report gives the reason for as opening their eyes and helping them think critically. It is a great source as a reference since it critically examines the impact of comparative teaching strategy on the student.
Conclusion
This strategy is effective when you cannot be able to choose between opposing phrases or activities. It helps to analyze the pros and the cons what poses the problem. It is mainly done by drawing charts or column where the instructional designers contribute in identifying what they find common under the similarities column and what they find in one and not in another under the different column. The instructional designers will be able to participate fully by highlighting the most main idea between two concepts. Designing the lesson by this strategy will both teachers and students to get clear idea and understanding the differences between concept, characteristics among two topic or more.
Chapter Three: Signaling
What signaling is
signaling strategy is highlighting the main ideas and information in the texts . It helps to arrange and organize the information in the mind. It arranges the information through build or construct a mental coherent outline of the texts. Thus, it is a strategy that helps to recall the information as the way they construct the outline. Promote students’ abilities who have weaknesses in reading to understand what the texts include. It makes learners aware of what the next step and what the passage may could include.
Objectives
The instructional designers will be able to
· Define the concept of signaling
· Recognize when to select signaling
· Explain why they are utilizing signaling
· Identify how to use signaling
· Recognize where it should be used
· Design material by suing signaling strategy
When to select and use it
It is useful when the texts carry out a large amount of information as well as spoken information. It is utilize to grape students’ attention to the main points in the text and show its sub points. Also, it is use to demonstrate the steps that come should come in the sequence and arrangement. It is good using to outline the long passage and emphasis the significant and main ideas. For example, put title, subheading for paragraph. It consider effective strategy for students who are less skilled reader in order to recall the information (Mayer, 2008). Mayer indicate that students who use signaling strategy they have the ability to recall the “conceptual information” by almost 50%. It is good strategy in teaching history, story science. In fact, it is good strategy and work in many area.
Why it should be selected
According to Mayer (2008) signaling enhance students to retrieve the information because it aims to reorganize the passage and content by emphasizing the main and important ideas in the text. Also, it “emphasize[s] the conceptual structure” (p.367). In addition it should be selected to:
· Help learner to organize the passage to recall the information later
· Outline the passage
· Clarify structure of the text
· Highlight the main idea
· Giving the basic knowledge
· Organize the information
· Demonstrate the relationship between ideas
· Increase the students’ understanding
· Build a mental outline of the text to recall the information
· Help students to pay more attention to the key ideas.
· Emphasis the important ideas
· Show the cause and effect
· Direct students’ attention to the main and significant information
· Promote selective retention and transfer
· Avoid confusing text
· Reorganize the material into coherent structure
How it is best utilized,
Signaling use by placement title, headings or subheadings that show what the passage will take about. Also, It could use as cues such as, using word to demonstrate the relation among topic and ideas or stress the main idea by telling the more important ideas are. Using some words or phrases to emphasis the significant of ideas such as it is important to know that, the fact is, we have to be aware of or caution should be exercised of this. Also, it could be by formatting such as bold fount, underline or italic fount. These method make students pay attention to the important of concept and help them to recall it later. After knowing the signaling each students will obtain specific method to use it in their studying.
Assessment
1. Throughout reading this chapter answer the following questions:
· What is signaling?
· In which case the signaling should be selected?
· why instructional designers aimed to utilize signaling?
· How do you use signaling in designing you lesson?
Related research and references
Mayer (2008) says, signaling is consider a meaningful learning because it “ techniques refer to the placement of noncontent words in a passage that serve to emphasize the conceptual structure or organization of the passage” (p. 367).
Chapter Four: Explaining Example
Objectives of chunking
The instructional designers will be able to:
· Define the concept of explaining example
· Recognize when to select explaining example
· Explain why they are utilizing explaining example
· Identify how to use explaining example
· Recognize where it should be used
· Design material by suing explaining example
·
What is Explaining example
Explaining example involves explaining exactly what are expected to learn. It aimed to demonstrate the various steps needed to accomplish the expected academic tasks. Explaining example is considers as “some phrases and communication techniques that you can use to help give clear demonstrations and instructions” (University of Rochester, n.d.). It means giving the solution or procedure of something step by step. In addition it demonstrate what happen in each step in detail. It gives a clear understanding why we did something in some steps and or if it needed in different situations or not. For example, in math, a problem is explaining in detail by providing an example that illustrates the steps solution and why in each step go like that. Also, it illustrates if a certain step required in another problem or not. In fact, it provides the problem and show the entire procedures with commentary of why it solve in this manner. Explaining example differs from one domain to another domain based on situation. Also, it uses in writing. Illustrate how to write certain type of writing. instructional designer need this strategy in designing problem.
When to select and use it
It uses to stress the information in the mind by showing in details the reason behind each solves step. This method is sued when introducing a new concept to the learners. A step by step explanation will ensure that they grasp the concept and have understood the presented ideas. The concept will be explored deeply to be fully understood. The step by step explanation enables the student to visualize both the purpose and result of each step. It is very appropriate when solving mathematical sums, chemistry analysis, reading comprehension, writing processes and drafting procedures of an experiment. Also, it is used in scientific and practical experiences and life experiences. The explanation gives the finest meaning and enables the students to fully understand a concept. Examples of where this is applicable are: in solving of mathematical problems and in carrying out of experiments.
If the designers aim to deliver the target goal quickly, explaining example is the best option to achieve that. Also, it use for demonstrating long process in order to save the time. It is a true that, at the beginning that will take a long time in explaining each step and why it goes by this way. However, later it will save the time because there is no needed to demonstrate that again because the learner got full understand why and when they use these steps. In short explanation example work in all domain to teach or learn something.
Why it should be selected
The detailed explanations ensure that the learners have fully understood what is being taught. This enables the students to develop an insight of their own. After that they are able to work out similar problem sets on their own since they will be following the outlined procedure. It also gives them time to practice what they have learnt. They are also given a chance of asking questions where they have not understood and seek further clarification.
Explaining example strategy is aimed to deliver information faster if your goal was faster learning. This strategy serves instructor and students time in learning. in fact, explaining example strategy has many advantages such as, display how to solve problem, provide explanation of each selected step, help to solve new problem in short time, explain reason behind selecting particular step, accelerate learning, less cognitive load, a good way to transfer knowledge, retain information to be use in another situation, link existing information to a new one, required less effort, improve learning, help to generate self-explanation and provide a guidance in learning.
In providing a solution for problem, that enable to link the new problem with the previous one and apply the steps to draw the solution. It is effective strategy because it helps to learn easy, quickly, transfer the information and recall it. When the steps of solving problem is showing, will be easy to apply them in other problems thereby the difficulty will be avoided in solving another problem. Learning that occurs by providing examples with explanation is better and useful than learning by doing and without explanation (Mayer, 2008). Mayer (2008) in his book indicates that providing solved example helps activating the cognitive aspect to self-explanation because the concept and the process of doing something or understanding something is achieved and recognized.
Suggests of Shostak (1986) about the advantages and effectives of using explaining example as following:
explanation can show:
· a cause and effect relationship (for example, to show the effect of adding an acid to a base);
· that an action is governed by a rule or law (for example, to show when to capitalize a noun);
· a procedure or process (for example, to show the operation of solving a mathematical equation); or,
· the intent of an activity or process (for example, to show the use of foreshadowing in drama). (Instructional Strategies Online , 214)
How it is best utilized
It utilizes by giving problem and show its solution with detail information about why these steps were selected to solve this problem. Providing example is differ from one tuition to another. Before explaining example, the instructional designer should make sure of the relative of providing example to the presented problem. Then, “Explain importance of what is being taught” (Chua, 2009). Give detail explanation for each step and what the impotent of this step to solve certain problem and when we can do without it. For example, linear equation, the formula should be explained, then providing example to apply this formula on equation. Explain in each step what happen and why it should be treated like that and what the important of this step, where this step will take to, what the result after this step and so on.
Assessment
2. Throughout reading this chapter answer the following questions:
· What is Explaining Example?
· In which case the Explaining Example should be selected?
· why instructional designers aimed to utilize Explaining Example?
· Is you given addition problem and you are asked to teach first grade students, how you will use this strategy?
3. Select any lesson do you prefer and use Explaining Example strategy. Make sure to select the lesson that needs explaining example to be understood. Do not choose a clear topic which does not need to providing example to be explained.
Related research and references
“Learning by example serves as solve a target problem by using a base problem that you already know about” state by Mayer, (2008, p. 329). Also, it “serves as the basis for figuring out how to solve new problem” (Mayer, 2008, p. 329).
A related reference to this can be found in an Article written on 11th February, 2010 by Kenneth Koedinger and Vincent Aleven. The two simply define it as “An effective meta-cognitive strategy for learning and doing. They employ their demonstrations on a computer based cognitive tutor.
Chapter Five: Graphic Organizer
Introduction
There are some lesson that need to introduced by pictures to illustrate the stages of something, the procedures of problem or to show the result of something, it will be difficult and confuse if it displays abstractly. Also, there are some learners who are visuals, they prefer to learn by pictures. Sometimes instructional designers and instructors need a method to deliver such content in order and with using picture to facilitate the lesson for students. Thus, Graphic Organizer is used by designers to deliver the content in the way that they prefer in facilitating the content and make it easy to retention.
Objectives
The instructional designers will be able to
· Define the concept of graphic organizer
· Recognize when to select graphic organizer
· Explain why they are utilizing graphic organizer
· Identify how to use graphic organizer strategy
· Recognize where it should be used
· Recognize the types of graphic organizer
· Design material by suing compare and contrast strategy
What Graphic organizer is
Graphic organizer is a visual communication tool which helps the designer to use symbols to express and present the concepts to relating them to the written one by using visual tools to convey a meaning. It describes and demonstrates the relation between fact, topic, concepts and fact. According to North Central Regional Educational Laboratory (1988) “A graphic organizer is an instructional tool used to illustrate a student or class’s prior knowledge about a topic or section of text.” It can be define or expressed in the form of mapping out, organization or arrangement of ideas visually. According to Jones 2012 “graphic organizers are basically visual ways to represent information.” It is used to show the relationship between facts, terms or even ideas within the task being learnt (Merrill 2007). This is achieved by the provision of visual display of similar and different attributes that can be used to launch a discussion or even a future research. It has different types such as concept maps, sequence graphics, scales, network tree, cycle, problem/solution outline, chart, human interaction outline. This strategy aims at providing visual aid in facilitating learning.
Constructivism theory of learning supports this strategy since it is a construction of written knowledge through visual art; therefore it employs the theory in its design procedures. Also, it is based on cognitivist theory because it helps students to link what they see with the information in their brine. According to Willis (2014) “Graphic organizers coincide with the brain’s style of patterning. For memory capture to occur, there must first be encoding (the initial processing of the information entering from the senses).”
Does what is introduced appear new and unknown to students? The graphic organizer strategy is used in presenting new information. Selection of this strategy use if there is no idea of the vocabulary or information that has just been mentioned; hence, the visual representation jerks seek the mind to understanding. Also, it is advisable to select and use it on learners who are observed to understand more visually than orally. It is used if the lesson need to provides the structures to demonstrate the relationships between its concepts.
The designer could use graphic organizer if the lesson carries out a large amount of information that has a relevance to another that will or has been previously taught. It is a good selection if the designers wants to make connection between ideas. Graphic organizer could be used in organizing problems and solutions, taking notes, relationships between ideas, cause and effect and relate the information to the main idea and information sequencing. It is also useful in writing because it help to organize the information and ideas.
It is used when the designer aimed to show the Series of sequence Events, similarities and differences between two things, problem with its several solution, and topic with its several elements or main ideas and sub ideas.
This design can be used in early childhood education centers to help them in mastering the worlds or letters, one major example is the “A for apple”, alphabetical chart, and in middle class category as for scientific illustration.
Why it should be selected
It should be selected because it facilitates learning and instruction. it grapes students attention, increase their thinking in learning. it organizes information, classify ideas and helps in observing the relationships between ideas and concepts, Guide students’ thinking, increase students’ reading comprehension and break the lesson down into the main ideas. In fact, “Most graphic organizers form a powerful visual picture of information and allow the mind ‘to see’ undiscovered patterns and relationships”(Saskatoon Public Schools, 2014).
Graphic organizers display the material in the way that motivate and stimulate brain to build or establish a related and a meaningful connection between new information and one that is previously stored (Willis, 2014). Willis (2014) indicates that “Graphic organizers are a creative alternative to rote memorization because they enable students to make connections, see patterns, access previously stored related memories, and expand upon existing memory circuitry.” In addition, it reinforces the brain to establish meaning by cluster information, and link them together in a meaningful relationship which provides a time to think about presented information (Willis 2014). The result of the cluster and linking the information in a meaningful relationship regarding Willis’ (2104) opinion is individual
can ultimately go beyond regurgitating rote memorization to the higher cognitive process of using the information in significant ways. The relational memories they store will be available for critical thinking and other executive functions to use for meaningful problem solving.
North Central Regional Educational Laboratory (1988)climes that graphic organizer helps designer to clarify the prior information about a topic. Thus, It enables instructional designers to get clear idea about students’ prior knowledge in order to activate their prior knowledge since they are able to visualize what they had earlier learnt.
The main effectiveness behind the use of this strategy are; to provide visual aid to facilitate learning and instruction, to provide students with a mental picture to see patterns of ideas and relationships that have not been identified, to help students in thinking and to encourage in the elaboration of concepts. Also, that will help in memorizing a new information.
Designing lesson by using graphic organizer grapes students attention and increase their thinking in learning. Visual objects catch a lot of attention because of the shapes and colors used. They will catch the students’ attention and captivate them into learning more. They are also very easy to understand since all the data has been analyzed and the conclusions clearly visualized. For instance one is able to observe the relationship between ideas and even break up a chapter into small main ideas which will be easier to understand.
In short, “Most graphic organizers form a powerful visual picture of information and allow the mind ‘to see’ undiscovered patterns and relationships” (Saskatoon Public Schools, 2014).
How it is best utilized
There are a different kinds of graphic organizer and each one has a different usage. For example Series of Events or “stage of something” use in illustrating the several things that happened in sequence, such as, transferring the water into steam. Turning water into steam, or turning sea water into rain, or the stage of solving problem. Another example is the stage of operating printer machine. The first, at the top of graphic organizer place “operating printer machine” as a main topic. The second, connecting the wire with electricity as a first step. The third, installing the inks inside the printer. Fourth, closing ink box after installing the inks. The fifth, pressing the power button. The last, put the printer on online status. (see Figure 2).
Topic
Operate printer machine
Procedure
Connect the wire with electricity
1
Install the inks inside the printer
2
close ink box after installing the inks
3
4
press the power button
5
put the printer on online status
6
It is ready for use
In the this type of graphic organizer the events or steps must be in sequence and in order because it shows the step of doing something or the sequence of event that happened in certain period in sequence. Using this type of Graphic organizer facilitate operating Printer machine by showing pictures along with the text until reach to the desired outcome.
Network Tree is another type of graphic organizer which is used in illustrating the main idea with its sub ideas such as smoking leads to perdition as a main ideal, causes the disease, waste of money and smelling as sub ideas.(see Figure 3). Before designing the graphic organizer, you have to collect information about the topic. To design this type of graphic organizer, central the main topic then list any information that is related to the topic. It does not necessary to be in order. This strategy leads to brainstorm which enable the designers to think about the topic and use their previous stored information and link it with the new topic. Thus, they gather all information in one organizer pattern to be easy to notice and recall.
Figer.3, Disadvantages of Cigarettes, Cause and Deceases by Paki
Another example was designed by Marcia (2011) about the “Energy”. She placed the main topic. Then she surrounded it with all idea or information that has related to energy such as light, electricity, sound and magnetism. She chose this information based on her searching and reading about energy. For that, it is significant to read about the topic that you want to design it by using this strategy in order to choose the right type of graphic organizer.
It is best utilized by using efficient graphics organizer that have a relation with information provided. It should not be as confuse tool for presenting the information. Also, it is used to demonstrate and display the information in sequence and highlight the relationships between the ideas. Here an example prepared by Willis (2012) about how to create graphic organizer:
1. You will create a graphic organizer with evidence to support the following generalization:
Sleeping 8 to 10 hours each night is good for middle school students.
2. First, put the generalization in the center of the graphic organizer page.
3. For each fact that you select to support the generalization, include a visual symbol. It can be a picture you draw, a symbol, or clip art.
4. Use at least three colors.
5. Include at least four supporting facts.
Graphic organizer help instructional designers for collecting information about their topic in order to create a lesson. Inspiration Software provide a good example about Graphic Organizer for a Science Experiment under the topic “ Which Fruits Have the Most Electricity?” (See figure 5).
(Inspiration Software, Example of a Graphic Organizer for a Science Experiment)
Assessment
1) Throughout reading this chapter answer the following questions:
· What is graphic organizer? Mention three types of it?
· In which case the graphic organizer should be selected?
· why instructional designers aimed to utilize graphic organizer?
· Before creating a lesson by using this strategy, as instructional designer what you have to do? Identify how to use graphic organizer strategy?
2) Design a lesson about “How to Install any Kind of Software in Computer” clarify what is the type of graphic organizer you will use? Illustrate what is the initiating event? What are the stages, procedure or steps? What is the final outcome?
3) For designing a lesson about “Environmental pollutants”, what is the type of graphic organizer you should to use? should place the cusses in order sequence? After answering these questions try to design an effective graphic organizer for this topic.
Related research and references
Referring to Dr. Katherine McKnight, in the K-12 Teachers Alliance, avocations for, “ use of Graphic organizer for Effective Learning” and Jay McTighe, in his book, Graphic organizer, giving the three ways that it can be used are good sources that one can familiarize themselves with before indulging in the designing process. Graphic organizer is “helping students organize their thinking and writing process”. Also, it helps teachers in “[illustrating] a student’s knowledge about a topic or section of text showing areas for improvement” (Inspiration Software, Inc., 2014).
There is also new research on the use of computer based methods for presenting graphical organizer instructions. This will be a great research as it focuses on digitalizing graphical organizers which will be easier and more efficient to use.
Reference
Driscoll, M. P. (2005). Psychology of learning for instruction. Princeton, N.J: Recording for the Blind & Dyslexic. 1-117.
Inspiration Software, Inc. (2014). Teaching and learning with graphic organizers. Retrieved from http://www.inspiration.com/visual-learning/graphic-organizers
Marzano, R. (2009, 9). The art and science of teaching / helping students process information. Retrieved from http://www.ascd.org/publications/educational-leadership/oct09/vol67/num02/Helping-Students-Process-Information.aspx
Mayer, R. E. (2008). Learning and instruction. Upper Saddle River, N.J: Merrill.
PROFESSIONAL LEARNING BOARD. (2014). How can I use chunking as an effective memory strategy in the classroom?. Retrieved from https://k12teacherstaffdevelopment.com/tlb/how-can-i-use-chunking-as-an-effective-memory-strategy-in-the-classroom/
Saskatoon Public Schools. (2014). Instructional strategies online . Retrieved from http://olc.spsd.sk.ca/De/PD/instr/strats/compareconstrast/index.html
Saskatoon Public Schools. (2014, 2 21). Instructional strategies online . Retrieved from http://olc.spsd.sk.ca/De/PD/instr/strats/graphicorganizers/index.html
The peak performance center. (2010-2013). chucking strategy . Retrieved from http://thepeakperformancecenter.com/educational-learning/thinking/chunking/chunking-as-a-learning-strategy/
Pappas, C. (2013, June 3). 3 Chunking Strategies That Every Instructional Designer Should Know. 3 Chunking Strategies That Every Instructional Designer Should Know. Retrieved , from http://elearningindustry.com/3-chunking-strategies-that-every-instructional-designer-should-know
Instructional Strategy Online (2014, 4 17). compare & contrast. Retrieved from http://olc.spsd.sk.ca/De/PD/instr/strats/compareconstrast/index.html
Jones, R. (2012, 8 26). Strategies for reading comprehension. Retrieved from http://www.readingquest.org/strat/compare.html
Jones, R. (Designer). ( 2012, 8 26). Comparison-Contrast Charts [Web Photo]. Retrieved from http://www.readingquest.org/strat/compare.html
North Central Regional Educational Laboratory (1988).Graphic organizers. Retrieved from http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/students/learning/lr1grorg.htm
Paki, M. (Photographer). (2013, 2 22). Disadvantages of Cigarettes, Cause and Deceases [Web Photo]. Retrieved from http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-braJFj4RNqw/UShgfa5OzVI/AAAAAAAAAH4/XKAYX2vwFoM/s1600/lungs(1).jpg
Marcia (Designer). (2011, 1 1). Energy Introduction [Web Graphic]. Retrieved from http://learningideasgradesk-8.blogspot.com/2011/01/energy-introduction.html
Inspiration Software. (Designer). (2014). Example of a Graphic Organizer for a Science Experiment [Web Graphic]. Retrieved from http://www.inspiration.com/visual-learning/graphic-organizers
University of Rochester. (n.d.). Strategies for explaining how to do something. Retrieved from http://www.rochester.edu/college/gradstudies/esl/week2/Strategies for Explaining How to do Something.pdf
Chua (2009). providing rationale to uninteresting lesson. Retrieved from http://merl.nie.edu.sg/documents/Educational Tip 14.pdf
Instructional Strategies Online (214, 4 21). Explaining. Retrieved from http://olc.spsd.sk.ca/De/PD/instr/explaining.html
Cigarette
leads to perdition
smelling
waste money
diseas
