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Instructional Design Educational Psychology > Instructional Design

Abstract

The expansion of computer technology and virtual classrooms for training and education requires a systematic process for plan- ning, organization, and development of the learning event. This systematic process is useful in all learning environments but has become, in a way, much more important in the distance learn- ing settings, given that many activities develop in asynchronous form without need of the teacher’s presence at all steps of the process. An Instructional Design model requires thoughtful organization and a clear design that enables educators and learn- ers to navigate the system successfully. Within this process the

educator, an expert versed in a variety of strategies and methods, plays a fundamental role as a mediator and guide of the learning process and its related material.

Overview

When an educator plans a course, he or she follows a conscious process in order to create effective learning experiences. It is of crucial importance that the person in charge of designing didactic materials and educational strategies for the course have access to appropriate models to guide this process. Instructional Design (ID) requires the development of steps or phases that must be serve as the theoretical underpinnings and criteria for this process.

Various definitions exist for Instructional Design, also known as Instructional Systems Design. As a disciplinary field, it is related to curricula development and educational technology. It is preva- lent in the field of work training and, due to its flexibility and basic step-by-step design, may also be adapted to K-12 learning environments and computers-mediated coursework. Whatever the format, most ID plans are mainly concerned with two main factors: the learners and the course objectives.

There are also many current interpretations for the scope of ID and its models. For some, instructional design serves to plan, prepare, and design the space and resources by which the learn- ing experience will take place. Others define ID as the discipline concerned with prescribing and optimizing instructional meth- ods as it interactively helps build up the learners’ knowledge and skills. ID is also considered as a technique used to establish detailed specifications for the development, implementation, evaluation, maintenance, and facilitation of small and large edu- cational content units to different levels of complexity. Finally, beyond its theoretical and technical aspects, ID is considered as the art and applied science of creating an environment of learn- ing and its materials, in a clear and effective manner, in order to assist learners in developing their ability to reach specific goal- posts. The most common definition of ID, then, understands it as a systematic planning project that includes the development, evaluation, implementation, and maintenance of materials and programs that are necessary for training or learning experiences to develop in an optimal and successful way.

Abstract

Overview

Applications

Instructional Development Models

ADDIE

Gagne’s Nine Levels of Learning

The Dick and Carey Model

The Gagne Briggs Model

The Assure Model

The Jonassen Model

Other Recent Models

The Instructional Designer

Issues

Terms & Concepts

Bibliography

Suggested Reading

Table of Contents

Instructional Design

Applications

A wide variety of ID theoretical concepts exist, which are expressed throughout ID models that serve to guide instructors and educators by systematizing the development process of learn- ing experiences. The field of ID is interdisciplinary. ID models are often based upon learning and psychological theories preva- lent at different periods starting from the mid-twentieth century.

In the 1960s, models were more narrowly based on conductivist views, which are lineal and prescriptive; these focused on aca- demic skills and measurable and observable objectives. They included very specific steps such as goal identification, behav- ioral objectives, observable results, pre-established evaluation criteria, building knowledge from the simple to complex, and activities based on stimulus and response. This system served as one of the foundations of new views of Systems Theory of the 1970s, which added the notion of open systems and welcomed student participation.

The 1980s gave way to cognitive theories, less focused on behavioral outputs and more concerned with learning processes. New ID models incorporated cognitive processes, such as prob- lem-solving, conceptualization, and processing information. ID developed a series of principles, which included an emphasis on meaning-making, and a more expansive participation of students in their own learning processes. The creation of stimulating learning spaces and building bridges between existing and new concepts were some of the novel concepts incorporated at the time.

Closer to the twenty-first century, constructivist and sys- tems theories developed further and became more holistic or encompassing. Constructivist theories of learning became more important. Constructivist views emphasize the role of the learner. Rather than centering the process on specific content and outcomes, it focuses on the learning process and creativity. The premise that guides ID at this stage is the construction of knowl- edge as subjective and from experience; in other words, learning as a personal interpretation of the world, as opposed to one based on stimuli and response. Therefore, the best learning is holistic and built by integrating multiple perspectives in collaboration with others. Constructivist methods, then, take into account the learners’ previous or existing knowledge and beliefs, in order to motivate them.

Later ID models emphasize the importance, during the learning experience, of research and selection of relevant information and developing the ability of analysis and synthesis. Strategies are tailored for meaningful learning, development of necessary skills for future growth and learning, team work, and collabora- tive knowledge, and developing social skills, such as empathy, responsibility, and leadership.

Some of the elements of modern ID tenets used in computer- mediated learning are developed in a theory called Connectivism

developed by George Siemens. Connectivism emphasizes per- sonal knowledge as individualized and within a network that both feeds and is fed by institutional and organizational systems, in a continuous loop of feedback and information.

Instructional Development Models Several prevalent ID models are based on ADDIE and Gagne’s model. Gagne is an integrative model which includes aspects from theories such as information processing theory and stim- ulus-response. Gagne established a set of basic functions by which the learning process occurs, which includes elements of stimulation and motivation, existing knowledge and skills, facil- itating memory, and providing feedback. Among models that evolved from the Gagne and ADDIE models are the Dick and Carey Model and the Gagne-Briggs and many others.

ADDIE The ADDIE model, from which many others evolve, is a basic Instructional Design model that counts with five phases: (1) Analysis. The problem is identified and the skill and existing knowledge of the learner assessed. (2) Design. Establishes learn- ing objectives and develops a learning program that includes lesson plans, media and material selection, etc. At this stage, a map or blueprint is developed for the course. (3) Development. Learning material and content selection is developed according to the guidelines and goals established in the design phase. In case of a distance learning, b-learning or e-learning project, for example, this would include the selection and combination of adequate programs and technology. (4) Implementation. This phase serves to train the project educators or instructors, if nec- essary, according to the curricula, learning objectives, selected activities and materials, and so on. (5) Evaluation. The last phase is divided into two steps. The first is formative, and it is part of all five ADDIE stages. The second step, known as summative evaluation, provides measures to assess outcomes and feedback. These are gathered in order to implement and enact changes that lead to improvement.

Gagne’s Nine Levels of Learning Along with ADDIE, this model, also commonly known as Gagne’s Model, is one of the most important in the ID field. Commonly considered a behaviorist model, it is concerned with the behaviors or outcomes of training and learning processes. Gagne focused on nine mental conditions for learning, which he called the Events of Instruction. These are (1) Reception or gaining attention; (2) Expectancy or letting learners know what the expectations are; (3) Retrieval of prior learning; (4) Selec- tive perception or presentation of stimuli; (5) Semantic encoding or providing guidance; (6) Response; (7) Providing feedback or reinforcement; (8) Assessing performance; and (9) Enhancing Retention.

The Dick and Carey Model This system, developed in 1978 by Walter Dick and Lou Carey, is based on the relation between a stimulus and response. Stimuli take place by way of learning material, and response by learning

Instructional Design

the content provided. Both stimulus and response are predict- able, dependable, and measurable. The ID designer must identify the abilities and skills to be learned and select a teaching strat- egy. In other words, this model is concerned with specific skills and the conditions for their learning.

The Gagne Briggs Model This model follows Gagne’s postulates, adding five more steps for a total of fourteen basic steps. A more complex model, it incorporates an analysis of needs, objectives, and priorities, as well as of resources, restrictions, and distribution systems. It also sets goals and sequences for the courses and curricula.

The Assure Model Based upon Constructivist theory, it takes into account learner characteristics and learning styles, encouraging active learner participation. Assure is divided in six phases: (1) Analysis of learner characteristics, including existing knowledge, skills, and preferences; (2) Learning objectives and expected results; (3) Selection of adequate media, technology, and instructional methods and material; (4) Organization of the learning environ- ment, which can be an actual space, such as a classroom, or on the Internet, such as a virtual classroom; (5) Encouraging partici- pation through learning strategies and teamwork; (6) Evaluation, assessment, and review and results of the learning experience. It is important, in this model, to incorporate “lessons learned” into future projects.

The Jonassen Model Created in the late 1990s, the Jonassen model is based on con- structivism, which focuses on the role of the learner in the construction of knowledge. Its strategy is rooted in answering a question, offering case studies and projects, by which learners must find a solution focusing on the context and problem-solving skills. It requires sharing related experiences so that the learners may find the connections and build knowledge from their expe- rience. It is also based on providing cognitive and collaboration toolkits, such as collaborative, teamwork, and computer-medi- ated learning, for example.

Other Recent Models The most recent models are based on technical pedagogical platforms. In designing a virtual classroom and technologically mediated learning experiences, experts emphasize two main basic concepts that must serve as the project’s underpinnings: the technological and the pedagogical. The technical aspect includes the selection of technological tools adequate to the specific learning process, analyzing its features and limitations. These can include the platform, software applications, multime- dia resources, and others. They must also be motivational and adequate to the learners’ skill level. The pedagogical founda- tion requires understanding the learners’ relevant personality characteristics, an analysis of learning objectives and skills, development and implementation of content and learning activi- ties, and the preparation of systems to present the content and evaluate results.

Other popular models include Action Mapping, Bloom’s Learn- ing Taxonomy, Kirkpatrick’s four Levels of Training Evaluation, and many others. ID models, then, combine conductivist, con- structivist, and cognitive theories of learning with myriad other disciplines and strategies, such as social sciences, systems theory, telecommunications and multimedia, among others. It also includes designing and offering the most appropriate solutions for different types of learning, always aiming at continuously improved results. Therefore, the expert in charge of designing an ID project, course, or event, must be well versed and expe- rienced in theoretical background and practical methodologies, as well as count with well developed people skills, in order to optimize the learning experience designed.

The Instructional Designer An effective instructional design expert is able to analyze and visualize all of the structural elements of a formative program, be it academic or a training event, by adding the optimal strat- egies and solutions for each learning experience. Therefore, it usually requires a person learned in pedagogical methods, edu- cational psychology, distance education, teamwork processes, and so on. The modern ID field expert must also be capable of creating adequate didactic materials sets and virtual learning environments; he or she should be concerned with developing the following skill set:

• Technical skills that allow the adaptation of contents for distance and virtual learning.

• In-depth knowledge of teaching materials and how to adapt them in classrooms mediated by technology when necessary. Moreover, it is crucial to be able to develop teaching materials when those that are required are not available.

• Theoretical knowledge. The capability of assessing the advantages and disadvantages of using, on a case by case basis, a wide variety of learning environments, strategies, models, and material.

• Pedagogical knowledge and ability to assess timeframes and the development of some activities and materials compared to others, so that he or she may be able to select the best solution for each case.

• Facility with specific software for material design in different formats, such as text, hypertext, multimedia, Powerpoint, and others.

• Theoretical knowledge necessary to implement diverse methods aimed at knowledge construction.

• Evaluation skills and knowledge about tabulating, evalu- ating, and analyzing learning processes.

Cathy Moore, one of the foremost experts in last generation instructional design, has developed a road map for gaining knowledge and experience as an instructional designer. Effec- tive instructional designers are skillful in the following:

Instructional Design

• Analyzing a specific problem and finding a solution. • Creating guidelines or “mapping out” a strategy for train-

ing or educational coursework.

Creative development of the appropriate media for the content and the learner group.Some fields offer the possibility of con- centrating in one area of the instructional design field. f course, people come with different skill sets and talents. Some ID experts prefer to focus on the design aspect, while others may prefer to develop and create instructional media and material. To specialize in one aspect of ID is possible, especially for those who can work for organizations that are large enough to pro- vide different instructional teams and collaborators. On the other hand, not all companies and educational centers are large enough to create separate departments to allow such levels of specializa- tion. Therefore, an instructional designer must be able to develop all or most aspects of an instructional design program and be prepared to be “hands on” about it.

Although it is not imperative to have a higher education degree in order to become an effective instructional designer, the field of instructional design has become a rapidly growing academic field, and many universities and education centers offer opportu- nities to graduate as an ID professional.

Issues

ID is a growing field and is rapidly gaining track across con- temporary learning environments. It includes learning modes such as b-learning, e-learning and others, based on computer- mediated instruction. One of the reasons for its fast expansion is the widespread development of different models and fields for online learning worldwide; these includes the field of Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs). Across many industries, from manufacturing plants to police departments and corporate head- quarters, ID has gained great importance in the novel landscape of training and employee education. The new educational arena creatively conflates technological and pedagogical models and media, and theoretical frameworks are constantly developing in order to catch up with this new field. Experts in online learning posit that ID in the context of computer-mediated and virtual learning focuses on a few key areas, such as the learning process, tasks and activities, resources, participation, and assessment. In other words, the basic elements of ID remain, and are continu- ously adapted to the evolving field of education and education. New and exciting challenges continue to arise, such as adapting the ID learning process to MOOC students around the world, who must learn from the standpoint of a different culture, envi- ronment, and even language.

Instructional Design is the blueprint or map, then, which guides both educators and learners in the instructional process. For this reason, it is necessary to be skillful and thoughtful in selecting the methods appropriate to the objective. Instructional Design is also a foundation that guarantees that the technology will not

take over the learning process and that the pedagogical aspect remains a priority.

Terms & Concepts

B-learning: Also known as blended learning, it is a formal educational strategy that blends electronic learning with more traditional educational approaches.

Conductivism: Related to Behaviorism, a theoretical approach that focuses on human behavior and reactions, rather than mental states.

E-learning: Using electronic technologies, usually the Internet, for learning and training purposes.

Pedagogy: The formal academic field of teaching and learning.

Bibliography

Bean, C. (2014). The accidental instructional designer: Learning design for the digital age. Alexandria, VA: ASTD.

Brown, A, Green, E. (2010). The essentials of instructional design: Connecting fundamental principles with processes and practice. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Pearson Education.

Chen, S. (2014). Instructional design strategies for intensive online courses: An objectivist-constructivist blended approach. Journal of Interactive Online Learning, 13(1), 72–86. Retrieved March 9, 2015 from EBSCO Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.asp x?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=96164281&site=ehost-live

Dirksen, J. (2011) Design for how people learn. Berkeley, CA: New Riders.

Diseno instruccional. entornos virtuales de formacion. Universidad de Valencia. Retrieved March 9, 2015 from http://www.uv.es/bellochc/pedagogia/EVA4.wiki

Hillen S.; Landis, M. (2014). Two perspectives on e-learning design: A synopsis of a U.S. and European Analysis. International Review of Research in Distance and Open Learning, 15(4), 199–225. Retrieved March 10, 2015 from EBSCO Education Research Complete. http://search. ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=982 26362&site=ehost-live

Lee, J., & Jang, S. (2014). A methodological framework for instructional design model development: Critical dimen- sions of synthesized procedures. Educational Technology Research and Development, 62(6), 743–765.

Instructional Design

McMurthy, K. (2014). Review of the instructional design knowledge base: Theory, research and practice. Techtrends: Linking Research and Practice to Improve Learning, 58(3), 97–99. Retrieved March 10, 2015 from EBSCO Education Research Complete. http://search. ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=957 12402&site=ehost-live

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