require active planning
1.2.2. Factors reflecting effective study during a semester
If the goal is to predict GPA and cumulative GPA for students, it is necessary to
focus on information that students are capable of reporting accurately from memory about the entire current semester. Although it would be fascinating if students were
willing to report their detailed study processes for every hour of study during the
semester, it would be virtually impossible to validate this information, particularly
retrospectively. Consequently, we chose to focus on observable characteristics of
activities that students actively initiated to influence not only the amount of study
time but also the quality of study. Based on the deliberate-practice framework, effec-
tive learning requires high levels of concentration and focus on the study activities
(Ericsson, 1996, 2002; Ericsson et al., 1993). As a result, studying should be more
E.A. Plant et al. / Contemporary Educational Psychology 30 (2005) 96–116 101
effective if it takes place in environments that allow full concentration (Zimmerman,
1998, 2002). Whereas some students may walk over to the library to study alone, oth-
ers may study with friends and in settings with many potential distracters. However,
studying is more likely to reach a quality consistent with deliberate practice and self-
regulated academic learning if students schedule studying activities at suitable times and in locations where they would be unlikely to be interrupted and distracted.
Consistent with this argument, when researchers have taken steps to assess dis-
tractions or interruptions to studying, they are typically successful in predicting aca-
demic performance. For example, Michaels and Miethe�s (1989) found that studying with the radio and TV was associated with a lower GPA. Hinrichsen (1972) found
that the amount of effective study time (i.e., the number of uninterrupted minutes
spent studying) predicted GPA. In addition, Allen et al. (1972) found that the num-
ber of interruptions that students reported during studying was negatively correlated with GPA. These findings suggest that students interested in excelling in school
might be well served by choosing study environments with a low probability of dis-
traction (e.g., studying alone in the library). We argue that such study environments
are more likely to foster the kind of concentration and focus necessary for effective
learning (i.e., deliberate practice and self-regulated learning).
Based on research on expert musicians and other elite performers, we know that
engagement in deliberate practice is not generally spontaneous but that future expert
performers habitually practice at regularly scheduled times (Ericsson, 1996, 2002). The factors that control engagement in deliberate practice thus differ from the un-
planned and spontaneous engagement in more enjoyable and effortless activities,
such as leisure activities with friends (Ericsson et al., 1993). The need for sustained
concentration, appropriate environment, and sufficiently long uninterrupted time
intervals for deliberate practice requires long-term time budgeting and active prior-
itization. Therefore, given the competing demands for time in college, deliberate
practice among college students would require active planning of their time. Simi-
larly, self-regulated, effective learning is argued to require careful forethought and planning (Zimmerman, 1998, 2002). Consistent with these propositions, Britton
and Tesser (1991) argued that because of the multiple demands on students� time, careful planning of time is critical to success. They believe that good organization
and goal setting (i.e., planning activities a week or more in advance) created a more
focused approach to studying and more efficient monitoring of goal accomplish-
ment. Such focus and monitoring are critical to deliberate practice. Consistent with
their theorizing, they found that self-management practices such as prioritizing tasks
were predictive of college students� GPAs even when controlling for their SAT scores (also see Gortner Lahmers & Zulauf, 2000).
In order for students to engage in the high quality of study necessary for deliber-
ate practice, it is also important that students expend the effort to come to the classes
and attend a large percentage of them. It is in the classroom where students receive
instruction regarding what information and skills need to be studied and practiced
for high levels of performance. Therefore, it is expected that a high level of atten-